Evaluating Evidence
Now that you are able to separate the conclusion from the premises that support it, it is time to evaluate those premises. This is a vital step; the conclusion, after all, is trying to convince you of something-that you should accept a certain opinion, change your beliefs, or take a specific action. Before you accept that conclusion, therefore, you need to examine the validity of the evidence for that conclusion.
Specifically, there are three questions to ask yourself when evaluating evidence:
1. What type of evidence is offered?
2. Is that evidence credible?
3. Is that evidence reasonable?

Types if Evidence
There are many different types of evidence that can be offered in support of a conclusion. One of the most basic distinctions to make is between premises that are fact, premises that are opinion, and premises that can be accepted only as tentative truths.
Here is a review of the difference between fact and opinion:

• A fact is something known for certain to have happened, to be true, or to exist.
• An opinion is something believed to have happened, to be true, or to exist.
• A tentative truth is a claim that may be a fact but that needs to be verified.

Whether they are facts, opinions, or tentative truths, premises can come in the following forms:

• Statistics or figures
• Physical evidence (artifacts)
• Things seen, felt, or heard (observations)
• Statements from experts and expert witnesses
• Reports of experiences
• Ideas, feelings or beliefs

Some types of evidence seem more convincing than others. That is, people are often more likely to believe or be convinced by statistics than by someone's opinion. But that does not mean that all statistics should automatically be accepted and that all opinions should be rejected. Because statistics can be manipulated and because opinions can be quite reasonable, all forms of evidence need to be examined for both credibility and reasonableness.

Working with Arguments
First, you need to know what deductive reasoning is. To help define it, the counterpart of deductive reasoning, which is inductive reasoning, will be introduced first.

Inductive Reasoning
Inductive reasoning consists of making observations and then drawing conclusions based on those observations.
Like a detective, you use inductive reasoning all the time in your life. You might notice, for example, that every time you eat a hot dog with chili and onions, you get a stomachache. Using inductive reasoning, you could logically conclude that the chili dogs cause indigestion, and that you should probably stop eating them. Similarly, you might notice that your cat tries ti scratch you every time you rub her stomach. You could logically conclude that she does not like her stomach rubbed. In both examples, what you are doing is moving from the specific-a particular observation-to the general-a larger conclusion. Inductive reasoning starts from observation and evidence and leads to a conclusion.

Using inductive reasoning generally involves the following questions:
1. What have you observed? What evidence is available?
2. What can you conclude from that evidence?
3. Is that evidence logical?

Deductive Reasoning
Unlike inductive reasoning, which moves from specific evidence to a general conclusion, deductive reasoning does the opposite; it generally moves from a conclusion to the evidence for that conclusion. In inductive reasoning, the conclusion has to be 'figured out' and we must determine whether or not the conclusion is valid. In deductive reasoning, on the other hand, we start with the conclusion and then see if the evidence is valid, the conclusion it supports is valid as well. In other words, deductive reasoning involves asking:

1. What is the conclusion?
2. What evidence supports it?
3. Is that evidence logical?

If you can answer yes to question 3, then the conclusion should be logical and the argument sound.

Who Makes the Claim?


What is Credibility? - believability; trustworthiness
When you are faced with a variety of opinions, one of the most important things to consider is the credibility of those giving their opinion. That is, you need to consider whose opinion is the most trustworthy and valid in the particular situation.

Credibility also plays a very important role when dealing with those tentative truths. Whenever you are offered opinions or facts that you are not comfortable accepting and are not able to verify, the credibility of your source is crucial in helping you decide whether or not to accept these opinions or tentative truths.

Recognizing Bias
A bias is an opinion or feeling that strongly favors one side over others; a predisposition to support one side; or a prejudice against other sides. However, it is important, to know as much as possible about your sources when deciding how heavily to weigh their opinions.

What's in a Word?


Euphemism: a milder or more positive expression used to replace a negative or unpleasant one.
Dysphemism: replacing a neutral or positive expression with a negative or unpleasant one.

Euphemisms and Dysphemisms


Euphemisms are the most common of the subtle persuasion techniques. You have probably even used them yourself many times without even realizing it. An euphemism is when a phrase-usually one that is harsh, negative, or offensive-is replaced with a milder or more positive expression.

When we replace a positive or natural expression with one that is negative or unpleasant, we are using a dysphemism.

Euphemisms and dysphemisms are used more than ever these days, especially in advertising , the media, and by politicians to influence out thoughts and feelings.

So now, tell me. Which one that you choose? Or which one you prefer the most? For me, I guess I love dysphemisms. Why you need to say something in a nicer way? If it harsh, then be it. Accept it. When you use euphemisms, it is like you are covering or hiding the truth. Two words from me, dysphemisms rule!

Thinking vs. Knowing


If you have ever watched the popular TV series CSI, you know that the investigators on the show rely heavily on evidence to prove their theories and solve their cases. What does this mean? It means that before they point any fingers, they use scientific proof to justify their claims.
As a viewer, you may have an opinion as to who committed the crime in question-that is, you may believe one character over another. But according to the crime scene investigators, who did what and when is a matter of fact. That is, with enough evidence, they do not believe-they know-because they can prove it..

Now, let's define fact and opinion.

Facts are:

• Things known for certain to have happened
• Things known for certain to be true
• Things known for certain to exist

Opinions, on the other hand, are:

• Things believed to have happened
• Things believed to be true
• Things believed to exist

Essentially, the difference between fact and opinion is the difference between believing and knowing. Opinions may be based on facts, but they are still what we think, not what we know. Opinions are debatable; facts are usually are not. A good test for whether something is a fact or opinion is to ask yourself, "Can this statement be debated? Is this known for certain to be true?" If you can answer yes to the second, you have a fact. If you are not sure, then it is best to assume that it is an opinion until you can verify that it is indeed a fact.

Why the Difference between Fact and Opinion Is Important?

When you are making decisions, it is important to be able to distinguish between fact and opinion-between what you or others believe and what you or others know to be true. When you make decisions, assess others'arguments, and support your own arguments, use facts, as they generally carry more weight that opinions.

Inductive Reasoning
As a critical thinking, when you come across a deductive argument, you should examine the validity of the evidence for the conclusions. If the evidence is valid, the conclusion-and therefore the whole argument-is a good one. However, in inductive reasoning, the goal is not to test the validity of the evidence. Rather, it is to examine the validity of the conclusion. If the conclusion stems logically from the evidence, then the argument can be considered a good one.

But, how do you know if the conclusion is logical? In inductive reasoning, the main criterion is to determine the likelihood that the premises lead to the conclusion. Likelihood can be judged based on:

1. Common sense
2. Past experience

In short, inductive reasoning is the process of drawing conclusions from evidence. A good inductive argument is one in which it is very likely that the premises lead to the conclusion. Past experience and common sense can be used to measure that likelihood.

Critical Thinking and Reasoning Skills.

No matter who you are or what you do, you have to make decisions on a regular basis. You may not realize it, but even those decisions that seem like second nature-like deciding what to wear when you are getting dressed in the morning-require some critical thinking and reasoning skills. When you decide what to wear, you take many factors into consideration-the weather forecast; the current temperature; your plans for the day (where are you going? who will you see)?; your comfort level (will you be walking a lot? sitting all day?); and so on.n Thus, you are already a critical thinker on some level. But your life is complicated, and you face decisions that are much more difficult than choosing what to wear. How do you handle a conflict? Solve a problem? Resolve a crisis? Make a moral or ethical decision?

What are Critical Thinking and Reasoning Skills?

Essentially, critical thinking means carefully considering a problem, claim, question, or situation in order to determine the best solution. That is, when you think critically, you take the time to consider all sides of an issue, evaluate evidence, and imagine different scenarios and possible outcomes. It sounds like a lot of work, but the same basic critical thinking skills can be applied to all types of situations.

A quotation from Napoleon Hill:

"The person who thinks before he acts seldom has to apologize for his acts."